Management Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Management - Personal Statement Example I do not like dealing with impersonal reasoning since I do not understand or appreciate its merit, and am unhappy in situations where I am forced to deal with logic and facts without any connection to a human element. My main interest in life is giving love, support, and a good time to other people. I am focused on understanding, supporting, and encouraging others. I make things happen for people, and get my best personal satisfaction from this. I lead through personal enthusiasm and take a participative stance in managing people and projects. I am responsive to followers' needs. I challenge the organization to make actions congruent with values and inspire change. I may best be described as a smooth-talking persuader.I am a natural when it comes to motivating people --- even motivating them to do something they may not initially have wanted to do. My focus and direction is toward other people and I am highly skilled in understanding others' needs and motivations. I have the capacity to size up a situation intuitively, and in a very caring and concerned way, say just the right thing.This is part of my success as a leader. I usually know just what the group needs or how to reach the group's goal. I believe that the most important goal of education is to learn how to get along with different kinds of people. I am interested in literature and tolerant of theory. I do my best thinking aloud, bouncing ideas off others and achieve through perseverance and hard work. I want learning to pertain to human values and growth. My Conflict Style I tend to become pessimistic and self-critical, and turn patronizing at times. I sometimes insist on maintaining the illusion of harmony, although people know there's a major problem at hand. I constantly search for the "truth" that will explain everything. Some stressors for me include having my beliefs challenged, being unfairly or harshly Surname 3 criticized by someone I trust or hold dear, and people who are unwilling to try to resolve personal differences. Part of the problem can be self-inflicted. I sometimes misinterpret the actions of others as having negative intentions or the start of something bad. My Preferred Leadership Practice A great part of my leadership style is what I actually prefer, and this is due to my deep self-awareness. The high emotional quotient of a leader is still what I believe to be the greatest aspect of successful leadership. However, I want to focus on being more "informing" than "directing". The directing style is inclined to "urge ask, tell."It is more on "moving forward" and it sounds "definite."The informing style, on the other hand, tends to "describe, explain, inquire, inform."It is "eliciting, open, flowing." Everyone prefers and naturally appreciates clear communications --- true leadership is "role-directing," meaning a comfort degree with telling other people what to do. My Personal Beliefs "Rascals" of different organisations nowadays operate from the line of reasoning that all is fair, depending on who acts on or thinks of it first. Those with high ethical standards have the additional edge of reliable and committed staff who do their best for their clients and the organisation. Success can come by means of shortcut and callousness, but it means more when it is gained through ethical conduct. Organisational ethics

Witnesses Fear of Retribution by the Gangs Essay Example for Free

Witnesses Fear of Retribution by the Gangs Essay In America there are a lot of many gangs such as Pico Rivera and Pico Nuevo and many Americans have fallen victims of them. These gangs terrorize people and the police are very determined to control then but their efforts are hampered by one thing, and this is the fact that the witnesses to particular cases refuse to give their testimonies for fear of retribution by the gang members. My focus on this essay is to discuss on why witnesses fear to testify in courts and how this fear should be allayed. According to the deputy attorney general Gary Haearnsberger, out of 258 cases that were heard, over 170 of them were murder cases and witnesses refuse to testify for fear of reprisal by the gang. People feel free to explain to the police what they saw but when it comes to testify in the court they refuse. As per the West Covina detective Dan Nalian in his news report on gangs noted hat there are people who witness shooting scenes and even identify the culprits but when they are asked to be witnesses in court they object. This has even become like a norm in the United States of America that it is not the right thing to testify against any gang for fear that you shall be attacked in retaliation though others refuse to testify due to their criminal related records. A case in point is of 4th March 2005 where a four-man gang tricked a woman claiming that they were his boyfriend’s gang mates only to demand to be directed to them. After they reached where his boyfriend and his two friends were, fierce shooting ensued and a fifteen-year-old boy sustained head injuries while her boyfriend and his partner went unhurt. This woman clearly identified the four-gang members as the residents of Pico Rivera. According to her eye account, these gang members were: Joseph Aranda who was aged twenty years old and Fernando Aranda aged twenty years. She forwarded their names to the police department and promised that she would testify in court against them. But as time went by she could not fulfill the promise she made to the police officers that she would testify in court against them. After a period of three years later the woman refused to testify claiming she couldn’t remember exactly what happened on that fateful day or even remember who the men in a jeep were. Not that it was hard to remember what happened but she feared retribution by the gang. (Gonzalez R. 2008) According the Gary Hearnsberger, the Deputy District Attorney, all gang cases have one thing in common and this is that no one is willing to appear in a courtroom to testify of anything because they fear that the gang who would then seel reprisal would mark them. These gangs have their working code that disallows anybody from testifying against any gang group in court. As per this town code, even the gangsters are not allowed to talk with the police or have any relationship whatsoever. The gang members are very stubborn individuals who are ready to suffer rather than cooperate with the police. They would rather go to jail than reveal their secrets. Many people have been victims of witnesses in courts and these gangs have killed some of them. â€Å"Some gang members live up to this code even if it means going to prison. They see that as a badge of honor, Hearnsberger said. What is kind of funny about the gang culture, as much as they completely disregard rules and laws, they will live up to their own. † (Gonzalez R. 2008) As the president of the California Gang Investigators put it, people confide to the police on everything that they witnessed but when it comes to making a testimony against the gang members it becomes extremely hard. All people should wake up to the fact that gangs rarely attack law abiding citizens and this includes those who are willing to testify in courts on a particular case but this does not mean that they cannot be attacked. In accordance with the 6th amendment, the accused person is entitled to a speedy and public trial conducted by a jury in the place the cat was committed. The accused person must be told in no uncertain terms the reasons for the arrest and then be challenged by witnesses with their evidences or what they saw. The witnesses should be escorted by police officers in and out of the courtroom to prevent them from being attacked by the gangs, as this has been the case in the past. No body should be imprisoned if there is no enough evidence given by the witnesses and the defendant should also be allowed to call his/her witnesses and they should be compelled to testify if they refuse. If the accused persons are capable of representing themselves in court according to the 6th amendment, then they should be given that chance. The defendant is also given a chance to cross-examine the other witnesses who are against them so that the truth could be established. The witnesses from both sides should be protected to allay their fear of retribution. There is nothing that worries the witnesses more than to hear that their families would be attacked just because they tesfied in courts. According to Cmdr. Karpal, witnesses who refuse to testify in court even after they are provided with proper security they should be charged of court contempt like that woman who witnessed robbery and even identified the gang members but when the time for testifying came, she refused to turn up though she was assured of protection by the police. This woman when she was arrested gave an information that contradicted the information that was recorded when she reported the case by saying that she could not identify the gang members. It was later established that this woman was an accomplice of one of the members that were standing on Rex road and this is why one of the reason that was given by the police for witnesses’ failure to testify was that some of them have criminal records though to others it is fear of retribution. (Gonzalez R. 2008) Witnesses should also be fully convinced that they would be guaranteed security even if it means being relocated to another area. The Pasadena police is determined to ensure that witnesses are given the protection they deserve. The Pasadena police are also prepared to arrest those gang members who victimize and intimidate witnesses. If there arises a situation that the gang members are intimidating any witness, then the police would relocate the witness and protect them. For example, the woman who was tricked by the thugs was to be relocated after she reported that those thugs were threatening her. â€Å"Her car was vandalized, she was being stared down and having stuff thrown at her. † (Gonzalez R. 2008) If witnesses could be assured of maximum security, then the fight against gangs would be won, as the main stumbling block is that witnesses fear to testify for fear of reprisal by gang members though there are others who fear to testify because they have some criminal records. The police has come up with a new plan so that they could offer protection to all those that are willing to testify in courts. They also go for those gang members who intimidate witnesses from testifying against their case. Reference. Gonzalez R. 11th March 2008. Witnesses Fear Retribution from Gang Members. Star News Pasadena, CA.

William Faulkners A Rose for Emily Essay -- A Rose for Emily, William

William Faulkner's A Rose for Emily In the story â€Å"A Rose for Emily†, William Faulkner, the author talks about a life of a woman and the town she lived in. The story begins just when miss Emily died. The author doesn’t tell us much about that time except that many people were interested to see what was in her house. As the story progresses, the author decides to jump all the way to the beginning when miss Emily was still a young woman and her father was still alive. During that time, the town felt bad for poor miss Emily and thought that she was going to die with out a husband by her side, since her father didn’t like any men that liked his daughter. Later on, the author gets to the time when her father just died. Miss Emily felt so alone that she decided to keep her dead father’s body in the house, and not let anyone take him away from her. After the neighbors kept coming to the city council and complaining about the fowl smell that was coming from miss Emily’s house, the judge sent a few men to put lime around the house to kill the smell. As the reader later finds out, the smell was coming from miss Emily’s father’s decaying body. Finely the authorities took the dead body out of the house and buried it. As the story goes on, the reader is told that the town was being renovated, streets being paved and such. With the renovators, came a young man, by the description, he was a handsome young man. The town kept talking as they always did, gossiping about miss...

Unhappy Cows – Short Essay

The California dairy Industry would like us, the consumers, to believe that their dairy cows In some mysterious way are â€Å"happy cows†. They literally use this term, thus insinuating that for some reason or another, milk from California is better. Or, perhaps they are trying to convince us that cows in other states are too â€Å"sad† to produce quality milk. However, I say this campaign is nothing but a big pile of manure. Pun intended. I have found no research supporting the claim that California cows are â€Å"happy sows†.At least, no happier than normal. In fact, Californians practices are quite the same If not Identical to any other states. It Is very sad that they use a campaign of hope and happiness when in all reality their dairy cows are mistreated just like the rest. Dairy cows endure annual cycles of artificial insemination, mechanized milking for 10 months out of each year, which includes 7 months out of the 9 months a cow may be pregnant. Cows both In California and around the nation are given hormones so hat they might produce more milk.This active and rigorous cycle overburdens the cows, thus only making them useful as dairy cows for two years. These particular cows are usually slaughtered at four years old. Dairy cows are expected to produce one calf per year per cow according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture fact sheet. Just imagine what kind of strain this must be on the animal! This would be comparative to a human running or jogging 6 hours a day, every day for a year while pregnant! Does that sound Like a happy cow to oh?Most female dairy calves are eventually put onto the milking line while most of the male calves are found to be useless and are often sold into the veal industry. Yes folks, even the calves from the â€Å"happy' California cows are sold to these kinds of industries. Hundreds of thousands of little baby calves are shoved into cages so small they can't so much as turn around until they are roughly 12 to 14 months old and then they are slaughtered for their meat; the meat that has gone tender after so many months of little to no activity.California is essentially capitalizing on American citizens ignorance of what is happening right in front of them. If people of this country would bother to read the facts, I doubt they would be supporting this ridiculous â€Å"happy cow' business. Perhaps Californians campaign should be a bit more realistic, such as the way we treat our cows will make your milk curdle'. â€Å"Farm Bill : Laws and Regulations : National Agricultural Library. † Information Centers : National Agricultural Library. US Department of Agriculture. Web. 10 Novo. 2011.

US Imperialism in the Post-9/11 International Order

The history of the world is hitherto marked by the antagonisms in the economic aspects of the society. Since the existence of hierarchical orders in societal relations in political and economic relations were conceptualized, the contradictions between and among the decisive forces in the production process have long been made brutal and more explosive than any other points in human history. Hence, the development of the capitalist mode of production and its dominance as the world's economic system gave way for the advancement of nation-states into imperialist powers of the modern world.Contradictions among the classes in the society, between the industrialized countries and industrialized versus the colonies and semi-colonies, only intensified the differences and irreconcilable economic interests of the nations. These contradictions gave way for most of the world's major catastrophic events like the First World War and the Second World War, being, in reality, war between imperialist and industrialized powers secure their insatiable interests for the control of the market.Such nature of class antagonisms reflected the exploitation and oppression that the motive forces experienced in the light of these economic restrictions in the present economic condition (Lenin 1916: IX). This essay would settle on the issues raised by the presence of the United States' vast economic, political, and social sphere of influence on most regions of the world. As the world's only remaining superpower, the United States of America, maintains its structure in presenting and directing the course of global diplomatic, military and economic affairs.US imperialist expansion would be studied in order to come up with the particular nature of the hegemony and provide necessary clarifications on the nature of imperialism, super-imperialism and inter-imperialism and if ever these terms are applicable and politically relevant in today's discussion of global relations. After the terror attacks become the focus of regional diplomatic and military roadmaps, United States role in overseas affairs became even more directed towards armed resolution of conflict as essential appendage of its imperialist hegemony (Stivachtis, 2007).Marxist analysis of the society in general and political economy in particular could mainly present the foundations of this discourse by which we would draw the explanation for such concepts of imperialism and monopoly capitalist hegemony in the economic, political, cultural and other societal structures that are essentially intertwined with this. To Marxists, â€Å"imperialism† is not simply the â€Å"trend towards expansion† or the â€Å"conquest of foreign lands,† as it is defined by most political scientists and sociologists.The word is used in a much more precise sense to describe the general changes which occurred in the political, economic and social activity of the big bourgeoisie of the advanced capitalist countries, begin ning in the last quarter of the 19th century. These changes were closely related to alterations in the basic structure of this bourgeoisie (Germain 1955). With this definition, there are still varied interpretations of imperialism even among Marxists.Vladimir Lenin's theoretical exposition on this subject has long been accepted widely after the Soviet Union molded a formidable economic and military superpower and directly/indirectly influenced the outcomes of revolutions in third world countries. The first and second world wars were the major eruption of these antagonisms and the world experienced an imperialist war over territories for the acquisition of raw materials for the industries and market for the surplus products of the capitalist western powers. A polarized global atmosphere boiled into wars that in reality, wars of expansion.The United States benefitted greatly from the war. It made the nation accumulate more neo-colonies after the defeat of the Axis powers in Europe and Asia. Hence, a conclusion can be derived from these events: the United States, after its economy faced a major crisis in the 1930's, needed war in order to boost its military industrial complex, obtain new territories as sources of industrial needs and market for overproduced goods, propel its strategic military positions overseas and contain the Soviet union's growing power and influence.Kautsky and Luxemburg, famous Marxists in Europe, clarified imperialism and presented yet another perspective on imperialist stage of the bourgeois capitalist system. Kautsky stated that imperialism is an absolute terminology to be applied to the interests of an industrial nation to expand its commercial realm by arguing that precisely an industrialized nation cannot sell all its products within industrialized nations so it has to look for nations with backward economies that do not have the technology and capacity to produce similar goods or products (Germain 1955).Cox stipulated the mechanics of how the United States was able to control foreign markets and flooded with surplus goods. He argued that the ‘Empire' dominated these backward or lagging economies through intimidation by use of the military, alliance with the local elite thus assuring an elite's government friendly, if not servile, to United States' imperialist interests (Cox 2004: 309). The reality of the economic basis of imperialist hegemony has not really subsided at the turn of the 21st century and even after the Socialist block has collapsed in the 1990's.In fact, the same contradictions n the political economy of the world, however, significant alterations have pervaded since and the resulting events are what the current United States' ruling class faces. Robert Cox noted the events which shaped the present international order as end products of centuries of societal evolutionary and revolutionary processes. First, he refreshed what French diplomacy baptized as ‘hyper-power' of the United States of America due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the disintegration of a bipolar world.Second, environmental concerns have taken the center stage of international affairs because of unstable conditions in the biosphere, biotechnology and genetically modified organisms. Along with these, there is the economic dilemma which suggests that capitalism continues to contain a tendency of widening the gap between the rich and the poor; ethnic, national, religious and other reason for polarization have been reaffirmed and; the emergence of ‘irregular' activities pertained to as terrorism and other organized crime.Hence, in the light of the authority's inaction regarding these concerns, the public developed skepticism towards established institutions (Cox 2004: 318). Further delving on this particular reasons for the establishment of a new international order, Cox asserted that with all these, there must be a ‘power' holding all these things completely so that this ‘p ower' could set forth the destruction or the genesis of an established reason.This ‘power' poses a dilemma as to what nature does this power hold that even Cox tried to provide an acceptable definition. Power†¦ [Is] in a very general sense to mean whatever force can intentionally bring about change in the behavior of any of the diversity of agents in world political economy. States are obviously to be included among the agents. Military strength and the capacity for economic coercion are obviously to be included among the relevant forces.The problem is to infer from observation of what has happened what the key forces are and what agents are capable of wielding those forces (Cox 2004: 308). Current international scene is dominated by the United States but the economic and diplomatic influences are fast rescinding because of US hegemony in many aspects of world affairs. The US led war on terror and its coalition of the willing is a manifestation of an inherent crisis in a monopoly capitalist system.Military power now assumes the greatest role in preserving the existing order while its continued intervention in domestic and regional conflicts only isolates US hegemony from the collective of nations. This fragile condition of artificial harmony in a US controlled international scene radiated greater conflicts and majority of the nations initiated their independence from the economic influence of the US through the formation of a regional economic and political cooperation.The euro for example, attempted to present an alternative to the US dollar. Even if this attempt did not gain head on with the US dollar, its presence already showed that economic regionalism was developing into more stable formations and poses formidable challenge to US unilateralism (Cox 2004:314). The war on terror has unveiled the nature of US imperialism that it is an ‘Empire' that sought to expand its influence and domination wherever necessary and possible.Conflicts in th e Middle East and the terror attacks in the US re-opened the debating floors to the concerns of terrorism and the ‘dialectic' relation of ‘terrorism' and ‘war on terror'. As Robert Cox puts it: †¦terrorism is a violent reaction to ‘Empire'; and for dominant power the response to ‘terrorism' is an expansion of ‘Empire'. The two are joined in dialectic without end since the two contestants are not of the same order†¦ The physical elimination of ‘terrorists' by police and military action does not eliminate ‘terrorism'.It encourages more people to take up the role of terrorist. The only way this quagmire dialectic could end would be by transcending the conflict in a reestablished legitimacy (Cox 2004: 318). Accumulating the economic, political, cultural and ideological crisis of the United States' monopoly capitalist empire, various thinkers attempted to explain the nature of this ‘Empire'. The most common of these terminol ogies used to refer to US imperial structure are ‘super-imperialism', ‘ultra-imperialism' and ‘inter-imperialism'.Super-imperialism is more concerned with the mechanics of the economy and that evolution from classical imperialism to super-imperialism was caused by a reverse in the international scene where US surpassed its preeminent creditor status to a debtor status, hence, the worsening crisis of finance capital under the capitalist system. Ultra Imperialism is a term coined by Karl Kautsky as a theoretical conception of imperialism in the September 1914 issue of Die Neue Zeit. Kautsky articulated that capitalist could exist without wars and these industrialized nations need not to divide territories and markets rather form a cartel.Lenin quickly repudiated this assertion and stressed that ultra-imperialism understates the class antagonisms in an imperialist system and the contradictions were disregarded. Inter-imperialism on the other hand does not really offer a new conception of imperialism but only an earlier term used by Hobson to what Kautsky referred to as ultra-imperialism. In broadest sense, US imperialism maintains the exploitative conditions at present, the contradiction between and among industrial nations and between industrial nations and third world.

Free Essays on Analysis of the Letter to the Galations

Analysis of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians It is presumed that Paul’s letter to the Galatians was probably written around 55 A.D. This particular letter deals with question whether gentiles must become Jewish before they can become Christian. The problem came about when Judaizing teachers in Galatia declared that Christians not only had to have faith in Jesus Christ, but also that they were obligated to keep the Mosaic law. Paul insisted that a person only has to have faith in Christ and does not have to perform good works, ritual works, ect. According to Paul, Jesus appeared to him and told him to preach the good news to the Gentiles (Paul 264). Paul uses scripture to explain why Gentiles should not be required to be circumcised, or obey Jewish Law; however, there are no direct quotes in scripture that say this. One would wonder why Paul, someone who grew-up in a good Jewish family, would not follow in the footsteps of Jewish Christian Missionaries, and require Christian converts to become Jews first. He certainly had to fight to have his belief accepted. Paul tried to follow the example of the original apostles by converting whoever was willing to listen. He must have understood human nature better than the other apostles preaching circumcision to the gentiles. Perhaps he thought that Gentiles would accept Christianity more easily if it were natural to their lifestyle because the thought of circumcision, and strict dietary laws could scare gentiles from converting to Christianity, which would not be good (Ellis! 51-54). It seems that the "Judaziers" preached a God that was hard to please. Paul's major problem confronted in his letter to the Galatians is the preaching of the Judaziers. Apparently, men who preach circumcision and the Law had been trying to mislead the Galatians, and change their beliefs away from Paul's preaching’s (Paul 264). This angered him that the Galatians are so easily convinced. So, the l... Free Essays on Analysis of the Letter to the Galations Free Essays on Analysis of the Letter to the Galations Analysis of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians It is presumed that Paul’s letter to the Galatians was probably written around 55 A.D. This particular letter deals with question whether gentiles must become Jewish before they can become Christian. The problem came about when Judaizing teachers in Galatia declared that Christians not only had to have faith in Jesus Christ, but also that they were obligated to keep the Mosaic law. Paul insisted that a person only has to have faith in Christ and does not have to perform good works, ritual works, ect. According to Paul, Jesus appeared to him and told him to preach the good news to the Gentiles (Paul 264). Paul uses scripture to explain why Gentiles should not be required to be circumcised, or obey Jewish Law; however, there are no direct quotes in scripture that say this. One would wonder why Paul, someone who grew-up in a good Jewish family, would not follow in the footsteps of Jewish Christian Missionaries, and require Christian converts to become Jews first. He certainly had to fight to have his belief accepted. Paul tried to follow the example of the original apostles by converting whoever was willing to listen. He must have understood human nature better than the other apostles preaching circumcision to the gentiles. Perhaps he thought that Gentiles would accept Christianity more easily if it were natural to their lifestyle because the thought of circumcision, and strict dietary laws could scare gentiles from converting to Christianity, which would not be good (Ellis! 51-54). It seems that the "Judaziers" preached a God that was hard to please. Paul's major problem confronted in his letter to the Galatians is the preaching of the Judaziers. Apparently, men who preach circumcision and the Law had been trying to mislead the Galatians, and change their beliefs away from Paul's preaching’s (Paul 264). This angered him that the Galatians are so easily convinced. So, the l...

Compare and Contrast the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia

Compare and Contrast the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia Political culture represents the multidimensional model of orientation to political activities in a certain community. 1The concept of political culture is essential in explaining political actions and behavior in different nations. This study compares and contrasts the political culture of Saudi Arabia and Australia. Saudi Arabia is the largest state in the Arabian Peninsula, and most residents are Arabs.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The country hosts Medina and Mecca, which are the holiest cities according to the IslÄ mic faith. 2On the other hand, Australia is the smallest mainland continent that lies in the southern hemisphere, and it makes up several islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean as well as the Tasmania islands. Australia has six protectorates. Differences between the Political Culture of Aust ralia and Saudi Arabia The Australian political culture has roots in classical liberal values and British cultural traditions. Australians value the idea of rights since liberal persons believe in equality and the related aspect of limited government authority. These rights are clear in the voting process. According to the Australian political culture, voting is compulsory. The law requires all Australians to vote. The process of voter registration and turnout at polling stations is also mandatory. Australians vote by way of secret ballot and women have a right to vote. Australians have a tendency of voting for diverse political groups into authority at federal and state ranks. 3 The current leader of Australia’s federal government is John Howard. On the other hand, the political culture of Saudi Arabia has its foundations in the IslÄ mic law. This is because the modern kingdom of Saudi Arabia becomes governed by the ideals of Abdul-Aziz bin Saud. In 1902, Abdul-Aziz began efforts to capture Al-Saud and, in 1932, he succeeded. 4This led to the declaration and recognition of Saudi Arabian kingdom as an independent state. The king heads the nation and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Besides, the king acts as the highest court of appeal because he is at the top of the legal system. The king elects a crown prince who assists him in his daily tasks. The crown must come from the royal family, and he is second to the king (Al-Rasheed, 2009). As a result, women get undermined, even in the electoral process. The electoral system of Saudi Arabia came into effect, during the 2005 election. Only men aged above 21 took part in this election, for selecting half of the municipal council members.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Australia has a constitutional monarchy while the Saudi Arabian monarchy is absolute. The six Australian prot ectorates formed a commonwealth in 1901 and became a federation. From that time, Australia has remained a commonwealth monarchy and its political structures have liberal democratic systems. Countries with constitutional monarchies usually have a queen or king as well as a constitution that limits their powers. Queen Elizabeth II acts as the head of state in Australia. Despite that the Queen also heads the United Kingdom she has different responsibilities in each case, both in constitutional processes and law. Practically, the Queen does not have any role in the Australian political system. Rather, she acts as a figurehead and she appoints a governor-general, who represents her, under the prime minister. The queen does not interfere with daily activities of the governor-general. In other words, the governor-general represents the Queen of the British administration, although, the Queen does not supervise his activities. According to the constitution the governor-general has the power to dissolve parliament, give assent to bills, appoint ministers and judges, as well as conduct summons. Nevertheless, the rule requires the governor-general to act according to the instructions of ministers in most matters. On the other hand, the Saudi Arabian monarchy has no constitution, unions, or political parties. Also, Saudi Arabia does not have power distribution among various bodies such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. This is because the Al Saud, which is the royal family, controls the government. The totalitarian regime upholds powerful public security equipment and outlaws all unions that lack official authorization. Nevertheless the 2005 elections represented a basic step away from Saudi Arabia’s supreme monarchy. There is also a difference in Australia’s legal and judicial systems and that of Saudi Arabia. The judicial branch of government in Australia creates room for the founding of law courts in the nation as well as the appointment and di smissal of judges. Australian courts interpret all laws, together with the Constitution, and this makes the rule of law absolute. The general governor appoints the chief justice and judges who serve in these courts. The High Court acts as the supreme authority on matters relating with constitutional review, and it has supreme authority on issues to do with interpretation of the constitution. Besides, the High Court handles international and interstate issues. Cases that occur for the first time get tried in local courts, childrens courts or magistrates courts, while main crimes get tried in state supreme courts.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The federal and state courts are sovereign. The High Court requires the state to cater for the expenses involved in guiding defendants. Besides, defendants remain innocent until when they get proven guilty. Defendants who get found guilty have a right to appeal. The law requires that every person should have a fair trial. Magistrates work alone in local courts while the judge and jury conduct trials in high courts. The law forbids random interference with relatives, privacy or home. On the other hand, legal and judicial systems in Saudi Arabia follow the Sharia or IslÄ mic law. 5Since Muslims believe in the Sharia they only appoint judges who are familiar with the Sharia law, the Quran and Muslims traditions such as prophet Mohammed practices and judgments. Traditionally, qadis decisions had to undergo verification, by the ruler, who ensured that the entire IslÄ mic community followed the Sharia. In other words, the judiciary was not a sovereign body but a wing of the political regime. This conventional association between the king and Qadis prevails up to date. All Sharia courts fall under the ministry of justice. These courts include deal with appeals together with other cases that occur for the first time. Petty criminals and civil cases become settled in summary courts. A sole qadi decides on all hearings in the summary court. Some cases, which surpass the ruling of summary courts, get heard in general courts. A single judge decides all cases in general courts, although three Qadis get involved in these cases when handling serious crimes like rape, and murder. Judgments made by general and summary courts get appealed in Sharia courts. The court of appeal has three branches including personal suits, penal suits, as well as other suits. The court of appeal could be found in Mecca and Riyadh. Several Qadis accompanied by the chief justice direct all cases. The king leads the judicial system as he acts as a source of pardon in the last court of appeal. Saudi Arabia’s policies allow for the founding of local courts by royal decree in cases where some aspects do not get covered in the Sharia. Kings have made several tr ibunals handle violations of government regulations that do not get covered in the Sharia court system.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Government systems between Australia and Saudi Arabia vary. The Australian Constitution, which became established during the founding of the federation, has the outline for the system of government in Australia. The constitution carries out two main tasks. First, it forms main bodies like the Parliament, the high court, the senate and the House of Representatives. The Constitution gives power to all these bodies and defines their roles and structures. Another notable feature in the Australian constitution is that there are some powers that get vested to the commonwealth government while other powers remain among the six Australian states. States and federal governments also share some powers. The nature of the Australian federation represents another noteworthy element of the Constitution. The constitution has parliamentary elements borrowed from both the American and British systems. Since Australia belongs to the Commonwealth of Nations, it recognizes the British as its monarch an d ruler. However, Australian has a prime minister who leads the parliament. The governor-general holds the executive power in the Commonwealth federation. Besides, the governor-general acts as the representative of the British sovereign as well as the congress, which the prime minister leads. The cabinet represents the coalition or union in control of the parliament’s assembly. Entity states appoint all other authorities that get left out in the federal government. State governments also collaborate with the common wealth in several areas where territories and states have responsibility. Some of these areas include transport, education health and implementation of the law. Levying of income tax gets conducted by the federal state, and this creates the problem of access to revenue among different levels of government. On the other hand, the government systems of Saudi Arabia become centered on religion. Particularly, Saudi Arabian government executes the IslÄ mic law called Sharia and all residents in the country follow this law. While religion in Australia only influences faith and church, IslÄ mic religion in Saudi Arabia influences other aspects such as the administration, law, taxation rules and business. All Saudi citizens and visitors can behave the way they want when they are alone, but in public, they have to adhere to several religious laws. For instance, all men and women must dress conservatively and conduct daily prayers, with exceptions of some cases in women. Also, all people must follow the law on gender segregation. The Saudi government has an agency that seeks to prevent immorality and support virtue, to see that all these laws become followed. The formal enforcers of this committee become referred to as the Mutawwa’in. Mutawwa’in have the right to question and bring into law any men and women who they find socializing. These law enforcers also have the power to outlaw Western music, television shows and consumer media. In efforts to reinforce these regulations, the agency has a website that creates a platform for people to report any activities that differ from IslÄ mic standards. Those who infringe this law experience cruel reprimands such as whipping and public beating. Saudi Arabia prohibits political parties although some political segmentation exists. The royal family occupies most significant political places in the kingdom, although, the Al Saud and the King should rule by consensus. A strong group of religious leaders called the Ulama, makes sure that the king follows IslÄ mic law. The Al Saud concentrates on interests presented by religious leaders in trying to pacify the strong religious mass of Saudi public. The Saudi Arabian community gets shaped by alliances between top religious leaders and significant members of the Al Saud family. The culture of tribal organization in Saudi Arabia also plays a role in political inclinations. Heads of the main ethnic groups usually have lots of powers. Previously, tribal leaders have demonstrated their ability to mobilize martial units from among their cohorts. Merchant families also have political influence in the kingdom. Revenues from merchants act as a stable source of income for the government and the royal family occasionally asks for financial help from these merchants. Saudi Arabia does not have a legislative body while Australia has a bicameral parliament. Saudi Arabia mainly depends on decisions by the King and seeks opinions of religious leaders and does not encourage public participation through parliament. On the other hand, Australia’s parliament is bicameral because it has two chambers including the lower house and the upper house. The house of representatives represents the people, and it gets chosen from almost identical electorates. The house of Senate, however, has twelve designated senators from each one of the six states and two senators from the two federal regions. These chambers oversee nati onal laws such as law in industrial relations, foreign affairs, trade, citizenship, immigration and taxation. Any bills get approved by the two chambers before becoming law. The lower house starts most legislation. Presently, this house has 148 members and each member represents about 80,000 voters. Also, every house has a distinct role in state politics. The government gets formed by the political party with the most seats in parliament. Currently, the Howard regime most seats in both the lower house and upper house. The senate reviews all proposed laws and makes sure that all laws are fair to the state. Each state elects 12 senators together with 2 senators from the 2 Australian provinces. Australia has fair distribution of power, which lacks in the Saudi Arabian government. In Australia, the state and territory governments address issues that the commonwealth fails to address. Each territory and state government owns a constitution Act and parliament. However, both governments mu st conform to the national constitution. Common wealth law takes precedence over state laws when the law is within the constitutional authority of the common wealth. Some issues that get addressed by the state and territory governments include fire outbreaks, roads, education, land, public health, as well as ambulance services within their individual territories and states. Similarities between the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia Both Australia and Saudi Arabia have a governor-general. Australia has six provinces, and each province gets represented by the governor-general. The governor-general represents the Queen of the British administration, although, the Queen does not supervise his activities. According to the Australian constitution, the governor-general has the power to dissolve parliament, give assent to bills, appoint ministers and judges, as well as conduct summons. Nevertheless, the rule requires the governor-general to act according to the instructions of ministers in most matters. 6Similarly, Saudi Arabia adopted a system of the provincial government in 2005. The Kingdom has 13 provinces, and each province gets headed by a governor, who is normally a prince, or a member of the royal family. Every governor meets with his provincial council four times per year to check development in the province and guide the Council of Ministers about any needs in the province. 178 municipal councils became created in 2003, to guide the provincial governors. Half of the municipal council members became elected by collective suffrage while the central government elected the other half. The first structured election occurred in 2005. At this time, over 1,800 candidates vied for 592 posts amid the 178 municipal councils. More than 600 candidates vied for the 7 positions in Riyadh. Some laws in the Australia do not get described in the constitution, similar to laws in Saudi Arabia. The Constitution gives power to most government bodies and defines thei r roles and structures. However, the constitution does not define the makeup of the cabinet and the Prime Minister, but they get assumed in the practices and conventions of the government. Thus, there are some crucial bodies of the Australian political system that do not get described in writing. Similarly, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia does not have a written constitution. This gets attributed to several reasons. First, the Saudi Arabian political culture identifies the Sunnah and the Quran as sources of law. 7The Quran is the holy book in Islam while Sunnah is the sayings and actions of Prophet Mohammed. Up to today, Saudi Arabia uses the Sunnah and Quran as the kingdom’s constitution. 8 Second, the Saudi royal family knows that a written constitution may limit its power and thus, does not advocate for one. The royal family desires to have the last authority although the IslÄ mic culture encourages public discussions and involvement in running the government. The IslÄ mic system gives the public power to select its leaders and only recognizes the absolute power of God. However, the political system of Saudi Arabia neglects this condition. Also, the Sunnah supports public participation in electing leaders and government administration. Again, Saudi rulers take advantage of the conservative public. These rulers make religious leaders influence the public opinion through informal agreements. Such agreements assure the royal family of power and supremacy over the kingdom. Saudi rulers assert that accepting the Quran as the source of law and warranting the support of religious leaders in a conservative society contradicts the need for public participation, or a written constitution. Moreover, the rulers guarantee high standards of living to the public, and this makes Saudi Arabians lose concern in political participation. Saudi rulers use oil revenues and the wealth of the kingdom to give the public high living standards. In other words, Saudi rulers sil ence the public through giving them high standards of living so that they can switch their focus from demanding political involvement.9 Some citizens in both Australia and Saudi Arabia do not support the idea of the constitution and IslÄ mic laws that the King applies. Several, Australians usually have divergent views about the constitution. Some people despise it while others support it partially. They say that the Constitution neither symbolizes the nation nor the popular culture. Compared to neighboring countries, Australians do not respect the constitution. In fact, most Australians do not know the provisions in the constitution. Nevertheless, Australia has enjoyed democracy for a long time, and most visitors admire the country. On the other hand, some Saudi Arabians oppose how the King applies the Sharia and Sunnah laws as he disallows public participation. Lastly, both Saudi Arabians and Australians do not take part in selecting some of their top leaders. In Saudi Arabia, th e King rules with the help of a council of ministers. This king selects 29 government ministers who make up the council. 10Most of these ministers come from the royal family. Other ministers in main departments like defense and foreign affairs also come from the royal family. The Council of Ministers acts as the highest law making and administrative authority where all actions and roles get harmonized. The council of ministers formulates policies in the areas of finance, education, education, defense as well as foreign and domestic policy. The council oversees execution of all government and public affairs. Saudi Arabia has 13 provinces and the king appoints a governor and a deputy governor in each province. All the present governors belong to the royal family. The king also appoints a council of ministers in each province. 11Therefore, the Saudi Arabian central government formulates laws according to Sharia while provincial governments carry out these laws. On the other hand, the Q ueen appoints governors in Australia. The Queen appoints a governor-general, who represents her, under the instruction the prime minister. The governor-general carries out his daily activities with no interruptions from the Queen. How and why these Political Cultures have contributed to the Peculiar Characteristics in these Two Political Systems The Saudi Arabian political culture has roots in the IslÄ mic faith. As a result, the Muslim faith characterizes all political systems in the country. First, IslÄ mic political culture affects the judicial and legal systems in the country. Judges who serve in courts must prove that they are fully aware of the Sharia law and Sunnah. The basis of these laws is in the Quran, which is the Holy book for Muslims. Occasionally, decisions made by Qadi get evaluated to make sure the entire IslÄ mic community followed the Sharia. Second, IslÄ mic faith believes that the Quran has all laws and thus, there is no need for a written constitution. As a result, the political system of Saudi Arabia does not write law but follow IslÄ mic laws. Particularly, the Saudi Arabian government executes the IslÄ mic law called Sharia and all residents in the country follow this law. IslÄ mic religion in Saudi Arabia influences other aspects such as the administration, law, taxation rules and business. Third, the IslÄ mic culture, does not value women since they get considered inferior human beings. As a result, the political system of Saudi Arabia does not include women in the electoral process. Since the beginning of the electoral process in 2005, only men take part in elections that seek to choose half of the municipal council members. Fourth, the IslÄ mic culture promotes inheritance of power and existence of Kings. As a result, the Al Saud, which is the royal family, rules the Kingdom with no opposition. The king appoints all top government leaders from his family. Al Saud concentrates on interests presented by religious le aders in trying to pacify the strong religious mass of Saudi public. The Saudi Arabian community gets shaped by alliances between top religious leaders and significant members of the Al Saud family. This protects the King against any public opposition. The totalitarian regime also upholds powerful public security equipment and outlaws all unions that may cause opposition. On the other hand, the Australian political culture has roots in classical liberal values and British cultural traditions. Since liberal people believe in equality and the related aspect of limited government authority, these aspects characterize the Australian political system. First, Australia upholds a commonwealth monarchy, and its political structure has liberal democratic systems that are similar to Britain. Since Australia has a commonwealth monarchy, Queen Elizabeth II acts as the head of state. This is because countries that uphold the commonwealth monarchy culture have either a queen or a king as the head . Practically, the Queen does not have any role in the Australian political system. Rather, she acts as a figurehead and she appoints a governor-general, who represents her, under the prime minister. The appointed governor-general acts independently without direction from the Queen. The rule requires the governor-general to act according to the instructions of ministers in most matters. Second, Saudi Arabia has a governor-general who is independent as well as ministers who give counsel to the governor. This demonstrates that the Australian political structure reveres in power distribution. Besides, powers that get left out in the common wealth government get addressed in the state and territory government. Each territory and state government owns a constitution Act and parliament. These aspects of power distribution relate to the political culture of liberalism and equality. Third, Australian political system makes voting mandatory for everyone. Australia gives women a chance to vot e unlike the situation in Saudi Arabia. This demonstrates the culture of equal entitlement and participation among all citizens as any elected person can lead the nation. Fourth, Australia has a judicial system, which creates room for the founding of law courts in the nation as well as the appointment and dismissal of judges. This demonstrates the liberal culture of Australian politics. Also, the liberal culture of Australians makes the High Court act as the supreme authority on matters relating with the constitution. This is because a country like Saudi Arabia assumes that Al Saudi has supreme power over almost all institutions. In conclusion, political culture of a country has substantial influence on political systems that a country adopts. This implies that different political systems occur due to the existence of different political cultures. The political culture of Saudi Arabia has its foundations in the IslÄ mic law while the Australian political culture has roots in class ical liberal values, as well as British cultural traditions. These two distinct political cultures create differences in the political systems of the two countries. While the political system of Australia uses a written constitution as a source of law , Saudi Arabia uses the Sharia law together with actions and speeches of Prophet Mohammed as sources of law. Besides, the king of Saudi Arabia acts as the last court of appeal because he is at the top of the legal system while neither the Queen nor the governor-general has such powers in the Australian political system. Rather, the High Court acts as the last court in Australia. Another difference among the two political systems gets seen in power distribution. Australia distributes powers across different arms of the government including the judiciary, the executive and legislature. Conversely, the Saudi Arabian political system vests all powers in the king. This is so because the country does not have a parliamentary system or a writ ten constitution to guide the activities of the King. Although Saudi Arabia identifies the Quran as an adequate source of law, there are some issues that this book leaves out, and the king has absolute authority over such issues. Although similarities may occur in different political systems that have different political cultures, they seem insignificant as compared to differences. This is clear in this study as most similarities show people’s ideals about the system and not the real political systems. Lastly, political cultures affect political processes such as appointment of judges in Saudi Arabia. Bibliography Abdul, Alrashid. â€Å"Modern Judicial System,† Alsharq Alawsat. Web. Abdullah, Bassam. â€Å"Political Reform in Saudi Arabia Necessity or Luxury,† Journal of Middle East Studies 3, no.2 (2011): 175-196. Al-Rasheed, Mohammed. Kingdom without Borders: Saudi Arabias Political, Religious, and Media Frontiers. West Sussex, England: Columbia University Pre ss, 2009. Bruce, Russett. World Politics: The Menu for Choice. Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010. Champion, Dominic. The Paradoxical Kingdom: Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1998. Galligan, Bruno and Ravenhill Justin. New Developments in Australian Politics. South Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, 1997. Long, David. Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 2005. Nehme, Morris. â€Å"Political Development in Saudi Arabia: Empty Reforms From Above, â€Å"International Sociology 10, no.2 (1998): 619-645. Saha, Justin. â€Å"Prosocial Behaviour and Political Culture among Australian Secondary School Students,† International Education Journal 5, no.2 (2004):9. Whitaker, Brian. â€Å"Hello, Democracy – and Goodbye,† The Guardian. Web. Footnotes 1. Justin Saha, â€Å"Prosocial Behaviour and Political Culture among Australian Secondary School Students,† Intern ational Education Journal 5, no.2 (2004):9. 2. Russett Bruce, World Politics: The Menu for Choice (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010), 10. 3. Bruno Galligan and Ravenhill Justin, New Developments in Australian Politics (South Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, 1997), 3. 4. David Long, Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 2005), 5. 5. Morris Nehme, â€Å"Political Development in Saudi Arabia: Empty Reforms From Above, â€Å"International Sociology 10, no.2 (1998): 619. 6. Bassam Abdullah, â€Å"Political Reform in Saudi Arabia Necessity or Luxury,† Journal of Middle East Studies 3, no.2 (2011): 176. 7. Ibid. 8. Alrashid, Abdul, â€Å"Modern Judicial System,† Alsharq Alawsat. 9. Brian Whitaker, â€Å"Hello, Democracy – and Goodbye,† The Guardian, last modified February 10, 2009. 10. Dominic Champion, The Paradoxical Kingdom: Saudi Arabia and the Momentum of Reform (New York, NY: Columbia University P ress, 1998), 45. 11. Mohammed, Al-Rasheed, Kingdom without Borders: Saudi Arabias Political, Religious, and Media Frontiers (West Sussex, England: Columbia University Press, 2009), 17.

Henry Brown Patents Safer Document Storage

Henry Brown Patents Safer Document Storage Henry Brown patented a receptacle for storing and preserving papers on November 2, 1886 This was a kind of strongbox, a fire-safe and accident-safe container made of forged metal, which could be sealed with a lock and key. It was special in that it kept the papers inside it separated, A precursor to the personal safe? It was not the first patent for a strongbox, but it was patented as an improvement. Who Was Henry Brown? No biographical information about Henry Brown could be found, other than his being noted as a black inventor. He lists his place of residence as Washington DC at the time of his patent application, filed June 25, 1886.  There is no record of whether Henry Browns receptacle was manufactured or marketed, or whether he profited from his ideas and designs. It isnt known what he did as a profession and what inspired this invention. Receptacle for Storing and Preserving Papers The box designed by Henry Brown had a series of hinged trays. When opened, you could access one or more of the trays. The trays could be lifted separately. This allowed the user to separate papers and store them securely. He mentions it was a useful design for storing carbon papers, which might be more delicate and could be damaged by scraping against the lid. They could also transfer carbon smudges to other documents, so it was important to keep them separate. His design helped ensure that they didnt come into contact with the lid or the tray above each lower tray. That would minimize any risk of damaging documents when you opened and closed the box. The use of typewriters and carbon papers at this time likely presented new challenges in how to store them. While carbon papers were a handy innovation for keeping a duplicate of typewritten documents, they could be easily smudged or torn. The box was made of sheet metal and could be locked. This allowed for secure storage of important documents at home or the office.   Storing Papers How do you store your important papers? Have you grown used to being able to scan, copy, and save paper documents in digital formats? You may have difficulty imagining the world where there might be only a single copy of a document that could be lost and never recovered. In the time of Henry Brown, fires that destroyed homes, office buildings and factories were all too common. Papers being flammable, they were likely to go up in smoke. If they were destroyed or stolen, you might not be able to retrieve the information or proof they contained. This was a time when carbon paper was the commonly used way to make multiples of important documents. It was a long time before the copying machine and before documents might be saved on microfilm. Today, you often get documents in digital form from the outset and have a reasonable reassurance that copies can be retrieved from one or more sources. You may never print them out.

Financial Analysis - residual earnings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Financial Analysis - residual earnings - Essay Example Pinto (2010) explains that one of the drivers of residual earnings is book value growth. Residual earnings depend on the growth in the value of the invested assets in the business. When investment is made in a business, the invested resources then start to produce earnings. With a well growing business, the investments will produce more earnings which then lead to the increased book value of the capital beyond the expected returns (Wahlen, et al 2010). This then delivers the residual earnings. Return on common equity also is a driver of residual returns. The general returns that a business earns excess of the shareholders equity is what defines the residual earnings (Easton, 2009). When these returns therefore exceed the returns on capital that the business set to achieve, it delivers residual earnings. However, critical analysis shows that return on capital is the same as residual earnings. Diebold, F. X., Doherty, N. A., & Herring, R. 2012. The known, the unknown, and the unknowable in financial risk management: Measurement and theory advancing practice. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University

Case write-up Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Write-up - Case Study Example In this case, what the music industry needed to do was to look for ways to monetize the mass market for the music, especially the younger generation that tended to think that music should be free. One of the issues that were present in the music industry in 2006 was the fact that there was no concerted effort to deal with the issues. Instead of the major players coming together to develop a solution, they were busy fighting each other. In cases where the players attempted to come together, this was only done in the form of mergers and this did not help in solving the problems. The biggest weakness that the music industry had in 2006, and still remains a problem, was the inability for the industry to realize that internet technology was to stay and that it would shift the way things were done in the this industry forever. Instead of adopting the new ways, the players in the industry were too busy trying to fight off the use of technology. This did not work very well for the industry. Wells and Raabe (1) indicate that the industry lacked foresight in this area and therefore faced a difficulty in making the new technology (internet) an opportunity instead of a threat. Ironically, the very source of weaknesses was also the very source of advantage. The same internet technology that was threatening to decline the CD sales was the same technology that was increasing digital sales (Wells and Raabe 6). The internet provided the music industry with a new way to deliver the music to the consumers. The internet could be used in so many ways, including promoting the sale of single songs instead of depending on selling whole albums like it was done in the traditional CD sales. The use of internet would also minimize cost by cutting so many costs such as the cost of producing the CDs and DVDs. It also eliminated that need for third party sellers, meaning that the users could get the music at a cheaper price. The new trends for such music products

Direct Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Direct Marketing - Essay Example It is a system of interactive marketing which is aimed at maintaining and building long term relationships with customers through the products and services offerings (Koekemoer & Bird, 2004, p.332). On the other hand, mass marketing aims to target the total market without emphasising on specific market segments. In such a case, the marketer believes that the entire market would be satisfied through the single product offering. The product is offered in the market with minimum or completely no variation in the marketing. It includes a single price, one single promotional campaign targeting the entire market and also a single method of distribution (Strydom, 2001, p.61). This is a relatively less costly affair which includes only a single standard package using one promotional message. Some of the common differences between the two are discussed as follows. The traditional advantages associated with mass marketing are that the production costs remains low because of a single production run for a product which is homogeneous in nature. The advertising cost also remains low because of the launch of a single campaign. It also does not require extensive market research which is why the cost associated with market research also remains low (Strydom, 2001, p.62). ... It is said that the strategies for direct marketing must be in alignment and should be guided by the marketing strategy of the organisation on the whole. It shows the way in which the customers can be reached on a one to one basis. This includes determining the product strategies, setting the price and arranging for the distribution. The L. L. Bean Inc. targets the outdoor apparel niche by the use of catalogue marketing. Many companies have used direct marketing to communicate with the target market. For example, Dell Inc. employs sales contact directly with the business customers, internet sales and telephone sales (Cravens, 2009, 377). Dell Inc. is also said to be using the internet for providing customers with the necessary information prior to taking an order over the telephone. The following paragraph discusses some of the common features of both forms of marketing. In term of the costs involved, direct marketing is said to be less costly as compared to mass marketing because it targets less number of people and is carefully aimed at a selected few. It would be more applicable for businesses which have a small or medium target market and which has string prospects. For example, the TV home shopping channels, like Home Shopping network is one the modes of direct marketing (Kennedy, 2006, p.3). In other words, direct marketing involves an one to one customer relationship on the basis of personalized communications (Stone & Jacobs, 2007, p.10). Another basic difference between the two is that direct marketing has a greater conversion rate than mass marketing. It is likely to be surer of converting the first person it targets before moving to its next target. Also,

Entrepreneurship Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Entrepreneurship - Research Paper Example Social entrepreneurs do not leave everything up to the government; rather they try themselves to handle the problems in the most efficient manner. Social entrepreneurs not only solve social problems but also navigate social barriers to the communities (Light 123). They offer a wide range of ideas to the people living in any particular society in order to manage their social problems. â€Å"Social Entrepreneurs Identify and Solve Problems on a Large Scale† (Coggins). Social entrepreneurs commit themselves to change the direction of the society and want to implement their vision practically for the betterment of the society. â€Å"Social entrepreneurs seek to attain long-term social effects† (Cuizon). Some of the core activities of a social entrepreneur include creating and sustaining social values, helping the individuals find solution to their problems, continuously pursuing learning and innovation, and taking bold steps to tackle major social issues even with limited r esources. Social entrepreneurs can be defined by two elements, which include strategic focus on social impact and an innovative approach towards the mission (Nicholls). Tackling with the issue of teenage pregnancies is a real example of social entrepreneurship. It is because teenage pregnancies is a critical social issue these days which needs to be handled by the people living in any particular society instead of relying on the government to take considerable steps. Teenage pregnancies bring a number of negative consequences for the whole society in the form of low interest in marriages, poor health of newborn children, and less educated mothers. The common elements of social entrepreneurship reflected in the example of teenage pregnancies include advancing the social mission to provide safe sex education to the children, applying innovative process towards the mission, and taking considerable measures for advancing the social

How the Federal Reserve System Functions Term Paper

How the Federal Reserve System Functions - Term Paper Example the Fed†) is so deeply interconnected with the entire political system, the inevitably byproducts of central banks are business cycles caused by politically-oriented monetary policies. Politicians use the Fed as a means of imposing fiscal policies that, although look good to constituents, ultimately worsen and damage the economy further (Bresiger, 2001). The following is an account of how the Fed is supposed to work, and the effects that the central banking system is supposed to have. An account of how it actually works is an entirely different matter. The Federal Reserve is, in fact, a tool under public control, overseen and manipulated by government to accomplish the goal of a healthy, vibrant economy. As said before, the question of function is deeply rooted in the question of structure, which is in turn related causally to the history of the Fed. The Fed began with â€Å"panics† in the early 20th century, wherein people raced to banks to withdraw deposits. A fragile banking system at that time was overwhelmed, forcing Congress to draft the Federal Reserve Act, which, has been modified through time to encompass broader and wider responsibilities. The Fed was forced to find the virtuous mean between the moral responsibility of the government and the private interests of banks, which gave rise to countless checks and balances imposed on the system by government influences (Meltzer, 2004). Congress, of course, ever since the first establishment of the Fed, has regulated the system. Based on that, the Fed is answerable to Congress and must work within the Congressional system. However, the Fed still retains a certain level of self-rule in order to carry out its responsibilitie s apart from the political process (Lapidos, 2008). The Fed is composed primarily of three parts: the Board of Governors, the regional Reserve banks, and the Federal Open Market Committee. The first, the Board of Governors, is the agency of the Federal government regulating banks,

Entrepreneurship Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Entrepreneurship - Research Paper Example Social entrepreneurs do not leave everything up to the government; rather they try themselves to handle the problems in the most efficient manner. Social entrepreneurs not only solve social problems but also navigate social barriers to the communities (Light 123). They offer a wide range of ideas to the people living in any particular society in order to manage their social problems. â€Å"Social Entrepreneurs Identify and Solve Problems on a Large Scale† (Coggins). Social entrepreneurs commit themselves to change the direction of the society and want to implement their vision practically for the betterment of the society. â€Å"Social entrepreneurs seek to attain long-term social effects† (Cuizon). Some of the core activities of a social entrepreneur include creating and sustaining social values, helping the individuals find solution to their problems, continuously pursuing learning and innovation, and taking bold steps to tackle major social issues even with limited r esources. Social entrepreneurs can be defined by two elements, which include strategic focus on social impact and an innovative approach towards the mission (Nicholls). Tackling with the issue of teenage pregnancies is a real example of social entrepreneurship. It is because teenage pregnancies is a critical social issue these days which needs to be handled by the people living in any particular society instead of relying on the government to take considerable steps. Teenage pregnancies bring a number of negative consequences for the whole society in the form of low interest in marriages, poor health of newborn children, and less educated mothers. The common elements of social entrepreneurship reflected in the example of teenage pregnancies include advancing the social mission to provide safe sex education to the children, applying innovative process towards the mission, and taking considerable measures for advancing the social

Exploring the nature of the Postmodern Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Exploring the nature of the Postmodern - Essay Example This transformation has seen the coming and passing of several seasons and eras which have always been defined by particular aspects of life. Modernism and modernity as periods in life were very instrumental in shaping up the destiny and the manner of life in the ages they erupted. It is imperative to realize that such changes basically commence by transforming the mindset of humanity before progressively changing other aspects of life like culture, art, education and sport. In this transformational timescale, the latest era is the postmodern. Postmodernism has totally transmogrified the entire mannerisms and tenets that defined humanity in the earlier epochs. However, inasmuch as postmodernism is meant to be a solution to the basic concept of life, several arguments abound whether it has really been a positive trend it was meant to be. This certainly arises owing to the many issues that surround postmodernism and the several reservations and doubts raised by critics and cynics. That certainly begs the analysis of the whole concept of postmodernism to determine whether these doubts are justified and more importantly to seek into ways and means of making postmodernism an accepted agenda amongst all and sundry. No era in human civilization did transform the world more than modernity and modernism. When postmodernism gradually replaced modernism, its most notable characteristic was its subsequent attack of modernism. In a way, postmodernism is a formulated and calculated move that seeks to debase and criticize the components propounded in modernism. Postmodernists will always seek to find fault in the conventional ways of doing things and in most cases will not submit their solutions or alternatives even after negatively trashing the existing state of affairs (Featherstone, 1995). Postmodernism pervades all sectors of human life including culture, sport, sex, education, philosophy, literature etc .Most importantly, postmodernism if a function of the human

Cognitive Behavior Therapy Essay Example for Free

Cognitive Behavior Therapy Essay What is cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)? CBT works by changing people’s attitudes and their behavior. It focuses on the thoughts, images, beliefs and attitudes that we hold (our cognitive processes) and how this relates to the way we behave and deal with our emotional problems. Research has shown that cognitive behavioral therapy is effective in treating anxiety disorders as well as panic disorders and social phobias. The cognitive component helps change the thinking patterns that keep one from overcoming their fears. For example, a person with a panic disorder might be helped in seeing that his or her attacks are not really heart attacks as believed. The tendency to interpret physical symptoms as the worst case scenario can be overcome. Also, someone exhibiting symptoms of a social phobia could be taught how to overcome the belief that others are continually judging him or her. The behavioral therapy component pays close attention to the relationship between our problem, our behavior and our thoughts. CBT can be effective therapy for the following problems: anger management, anxiety and panic attacks, depression, drug and alcohol problems, and post-traumatic stress disorder. These are just a few of the many problems that can be successfully treated with CBT. Studies have shown that having just twelve sessions of CBT can be as helpful in treating depression as taking medication throughout a two year follow-up period. Of course, CBT is quite complex and is not a miracle cure. Being treated by a counselor with specific CBT expertise is recommended. The client must also be persistent and open-minded. The CBT approach has recently been used in many pre-packaged, brand name programs such as, â€Å"Reasoning and Rehabilitation,† â€Å"Aggression Replacement Therapy,† â€Å"Thinking for Change,† and others (â€Å"Preventing Future Crime with CBT†). In some instances, medication can be accompanied with psychotherapy for best results in treatment. This is important to give any treatment a fair trial. If one approach doesn’t work, chances are, another one will. Be persistent and don’t give up! Works Cited Preventing Future Crime with Cognitive Behavior Therapy (http://www.all-about-psychology.com/cognitive-behavior-therapy.html)

Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis

Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis Abstract This thesis returns to the original case histories that Freud wrote on the patients he treated for hysteria. Here in these early works, the beginnings of psychoanalytical theory take shape in the acceptance of purely psychological theories of hysteria. Catharsis leads to the first inklings of repression which requires the use of free association, which again leads into Freuds attempt to explain the strange neuroses he sees through seduction theory, which is again transformed as his thinking moves on. Through Anna O, Frau Emmy von N. and Dora, Freud discovered the seeds of what would become his all-encompassing theory of the human psyche. Modern reinterpretations (e.g. Rosenbaum Muroff, 1984) of those early cases that form the basis of modern psychoanalysis have come and gone, but the original texts remain as historical testament to the fermenting of those fundamental ideas. Introduction Hysteria has been a hugely popular subject for research in psychoanalysis and in the history of ideas. Its roots are clearly signalled by the Greek word from which the word comes: uterus. Indeed the uterus was seen by Egyptians as a mobile organism that could move about of its own will when it chose to do so this caused the disturbances only seen (or acknowledged) in women. Treatments for this disease included trying to entice the uterus back into the body with the use of attractive-smelling substances as well as the driving down of the uterus from above by the eating of noxious substances. Just under four thousand years later, the formulation and treatment of hysterics had barely improved. The history of hysteria shows how it has often been seen as a physical disorder, rather than a mental one. Borossa (2001) describes some of the most common symptoms of hysteria as involving paralysis of the limbs, coughing, fainting, the loss of speech and parallel to this the sudden proficiency in another language. The change of viewpoint that lead up to Freuds analysis was slow in coming, and, as Bernheimer (1985) describes, only showed the first signs of changing in the seventeenth century with the first questions being raised that perhaps hysteria had its origins in a mental disturbance of some kind. Antecedent to Freuds interest in hysteria, it was the clinical neurologist, Charcot, who had a great influence on the field and accepted, by his methods, a more psychological explanation. Although sexual factors had long been implicated in the aetiology of hysteria (Ellenberger, 1970), Charcot did not agree that they were a sine qua non although he did maintain that they played an important part. He treated patients using a form of hypnosis and eventually his formulation of how hysteria was produced and treated was closely intertwined with the hypnosis itself. It was this use of hypnosis that interested Freud and it was the implication of sexual factors in hysteria that was eventually to become influential. It seemed that hysteria and hypnosis might offer Freud the chance to investigate the link between mind and body (Schoenwald, 1956). Anna O: The First Psychoanalytical Patient The literature often describes Anna O as the first ever patient of psychoanalysis. As it is notoriously difficult to define precisely what psychoanalysis might mean because of its shifting nature through time, this is a claim that is clearly interpretational. Still, the fact that this claim is made raises the interest into precisely what it was that marked out Anna Os treatment and the theories accompanying it from what had gone before. Although Anna O was not a patient of Freud, but a patient of his close colleague at the time, Joseph Breuer, he took a great interest in her case and its treatment, and from it flowed some of the foundational aspects of psychoanalysis both through the analysis of this case and Freuds reaction and reinterpretation of it. One of the reasons that Freud was interested in Anna O was that she represented an extremely unusual case of hysteria. Anna O had first been taken ill while she had been taking care of her dying father. At first she suffered from a harsh cough which soon expanded into a range of other perplexing symptoms. Freud Breuer (1991) describe these symptoms as going through four separate stages. The first stage, the latent incubation, occurred while she was nursing her dying father she had become weak, was not eating and would spend much of the afternoons sleeping, which was then unexpectedly followed by a period of excited activity in the evenings. The second stage, which had begun around the time Breuer started treating her, contained a strange confluence of symptoms. Her vision was affected by a squint, she could no longer move any of the extremities on the right side of her body. The third stage, which roughly coincided with the death of her father, heralded alternating states of somnam bulism with relative normality. The fourth stage, according to Breuer, is the slow leaking away of these symptoms up until June 1882, almost two years after she had first come to see her physician. The question is, how had these symptoms been interpreted and what had Breuer done in claiming to effect a cure? It is in the case of Anna O that the most basic elements of a new talking cure can be seen. As told by Breuer, it is a treatment that grew organically, as if by its own power, as he continued to see the patient. Often, in the afternoons, when the patient would habitually fall into an auto-hypnotic state, she would utter odd words or phrases, which, when questioned by those around her, would become elaborated into stories, sometimes taking the form of fairytales. These stories told to Breuer, changed in character over the period of Anna Os treatment, moving from those that were light and poetic, through to those that contained dark and frightening imagery. The unusual thing about these stories was that after they were told, it was as though a demon had been released from the patient and she became calmer and open to reason, cheerful even, often for a period of twenty-four hours afterwards. There seemed to be, staring Breuer in the face, some kind of connection between the stories that Anna O told him and the symptoms which she was manifesting. It was here that Freud was to find the roots of a purely psychological explanation of hysteria. Breuer describes numerous examples of this connection. On one occasion Anna O appeared to be suffering from an uncontrollable thirst and was given to demanding water, although when it was brought, she would refuse to touch it. After six weeks of this continuing, one day, again in an auto-hypnotic state, she started to tell a story about a friend who had allowed her dog to drink out of a glass. This had apparently caused the patient considerable distress and seemed to have led to pent-up anger, which was expressed on this occasion to Breuer. Afterwards Breuer was surprised to find that her previous craving and then abhorrence of water had disappeared. Other similar connections between symptoms and a story told by the patient were also s een by Breuer so that eventually he came up with the theory that the patient could be cured systematically by going through the symptoms to find the event that had caused their onset. Once the event had been described, as long as it was with sufficient emotional vigour, the patient would show remission of that symptom. It was by this method that Breuer claimed to have effected a cure of Anna O over the period of the treatment. It is from this case, although not in the immediate reporting by Breuer, that some of the most fundamental principles of psychoanalysis begin to form. An element of the story that has now passed into psychoanalytic legend, with some accepting its truth while others rejecting it, provides a more dramatic ending to the therapeutic relationship than that presented by Breuer. According to Freud (1970) in his letters, he pieced together an alternative account of what had happened at the end of Anna Os therapy. According to Freud, Breuer had been treating Anna O in the way he had discovered, as previously described, and had finally reached the point where her symptoms had been removed. Later that day he was called back to his patient to find her in considerable apparent pain in her abdomen. When she was asked what was wrong she replied that, Dr. Bs child is coming! This immediately sent Breuer away from her at the highest speed as he was not able to cope with this new revelation. He then p assed her onto a colleague for further treatment as he had already realised that his wife was jealous of his treatment of Anna O and this new revelation only compounded the problem. Forrester (1990) draws attention to the fact that Breuer acknowledged the importance of sexuality in the causes of neuroses. But despite this, he backed away from Anna Os case as soon as it came to the surface. As Forrester (1990) points out, Freud sees this as Breuers mistake and sees in it the birth of a psychoanalysis, especially one of its most important aspects: transference, and more specifically: sexual transference. Through the way that Breuer describes Anna Os progress in his new type of therapy, the path which the theory of hysteria and its treatment takes gradually emerges. Although Anna Os case was reported later it was Breuer Freud (1893) that used her case as the basis for their theory of hysteria. Breuer Freud (1893) state that they believe that the symptoms of hysteria have, at their root cause, some kind of causal event, perhaps occurring many years before the symptoms expose themselves. The patient is unlikely to easily reveal what this event is simply because they are not consciously aware of what it is, or that there is a causal connection. They are not worried by the seeming disproportionate nature of the precipitating event and subsequent symptoms. In fact they welcome this disproportionate nature as a defining characteristic of hysteria. Their analysis likens the root cause, or pathogenesis, of hysteria to that caused by a traumatic neurosis    perhaps similar to what we would now call post-traumatic stress disorder. The patient has, therefore, suffered a psychical trauma that manifests itself in this hysteria. The idea that the psychical trauma simply has a precipitating effect on the symptoms is dismissed by the authors referring to the evidence they have from the case studies of the remarkable progress their patients made after the memory of the psychical trauma has been exorcised through its explication and re-experiencing. Importantly, in defining the problem, Breuer Freud (1893) see the symptoms as a kind of failure of reaction to the original event. The memory of the event can only fade if the reaction to that event has not been suppressed. And it is here that there is a clear precursor to ideas central to later Freudian theory about the nature and causes of repression. In normal reactions to psychical traumas, the authors talk of a cathartic effect resulting in a release of the energy. The reverse of this, the suppression of catharsis (Freeman, 1972), is seen here as the cause of the symptoms adequately evidenced by the new treatment of a kind of delayed catharsis that appears to release the patient from their symptoms. What, then, are the mechanisms by which a psychical trauma of some kind is not reacted to sufficiently? Two answers are provided here, the first that because of the circumstances of the trauma, it was not possible to form a reaction in other words the reactions is suppressed. The second is that a reaction may not have been possible due to the mental state of the person at that time for example during a period of paralysing fear. The circumstances in which the failure of a reaction occurs is also instrumental in the burying of these thoughts and feelings and helps to explain why the patient themselves is not able to access them in the normal ways. Frau Emmy von N. Freuds interest in hysteria and in hypnosis was certainly piqued by both Charcot and Breuer and having collaborated on the latters work with Anna O including the belief that he had found a theory of practical benefit it was only a matter of time before he became further involved in the treatment of hysteria himself. Reported as the second case history in The Studies on Hysteria, (Breuer Freud, 1991) a patient of Freuds, Frau Emmy von N., exhibited symptoms that typified hysteria and Freud resolved to treat her. He reports that the patient was 40 years old, was from a good family and of high education and intelligence. She had been widowed at a young age, leaving her to look after her two children this she ascribed as the cause of her current malady. Freud describes her first meeting as being continually interrupted by the patient breaking off, and suddenly displaying signs of disgust and horror on her face while telling him to, Keep still! and other similar remonstrations. Apart from this the patient also had a series of tics, some facial, but the most pronounced being a clacking sound which littered her utterances. Freuds initial treatment was more physical than mental. She was told to take warm baths and be given massages. This was combined with hypnosis in which Freud simply suggested that she sleep well and that her symptoms would lessen. This was helped by the fact that Freud reports that Frau Emmy von N. was an extremely good hypnotic subject he only had to raise his finger and make a few simple suggestions to put her into a trance. Freud wonders whether this compliance is due to previous exposure to hypnosis and a desire to please. A week later Freud asked his patient why she was so easily frightened. She replied with a story about a traumatic experience that had occurred when she was younger her older brothers and sisters had thrown dead animals at her. As she described these stories to Freud, he reports that she was, panting for breath as well as displaying obvious difficulty with the emotions that she was dealing with. After these emotions have been expressed, she became calmer and more peaceful. Freud also uses touch to reinforce his suggestion that these unnerving images have been removed. Under hypnosis, Freud continued to elicit these stories that demonstrated why she was so often nervous. She explained to Freud that she had once had a maidservant who told her stories of life in an asylum including beatings and patients being tied to chairs. Freud then explained to her that this was not the usual situation in asylums. She had also apparently seen hallucinations at one point, seeing the same person in tw o places and being transfixed by it. While she had been nursing her dying brother, who was taking large quantities of morphine for the pain he was in, he would frequently grab her suddenly. Freud saw this as part of a pattern of her being seized against her will and resolved to investigate it further. It was a few days after this that quite a significant point in the therapy came. Emmy von N. was again explaining about the frightening stories of the asylum and Freud stopped himself from correcting her, intuitively realising that he had to let her give full vent to her fears, without redirecting her course. This is perhaps a turning point in the way in which Freud treated his patient, made clearer by the historical context in which this scene operates. While still seen as authority figures now, physicians were much stronger authority figures then. This combined with the greater imbalance of power between men and women would have meant that the patient would be naturally hesitant about taking any control over their own treatment. Forrester (1990) sees this as a shift in the pattern of authority between the doctor and the patient that originated in Breuers treatment of Anna O a move from the telling the patient what to do, to listening to what the patient has to say. Forrester (1990 ) constructs the relationship that Freud began to build with Emmy von N. as more of a framework of authority within which the patient was able to express her thoughts and feelings to the doctor and in this sense the doctors job is to help the patient keep up this outpouring of stories. At this stage of the development of the therapy, the facilitation of the story-telling is being achieved by hypnosis, although later Freud was to move away from this. How great the shift in the power balance was, it is difficult to tell a this distance, but what is clear from the case report is that Emmy von N.s case provided a much more convoluted series of psychical traumas and symptoms than that presented by Anna O. While Anna Os symptoms seemed to match the traumatic events rather neatly, Emmy von Ns mind was not nearly as well organised. At one point Freud discovers that taking the lift to his office causes his patient a considerable amount of stress. To try and examine where this comes from he explores whether she has had any previous traumatic experiences in lifts a logical first step within the theoretical framework. Coincidentally, it appears, the patient mentions that she is very worried about her daughter in relation to elevators. The next logical step then should be that talking about this fear should release the affect and lead to catharsis, but this is not what Freud finds. The next part of the puzzle is revealed when he finds out t hat she is currently menstruating, then finally the last part falls into place when he finds out that as her daughter has been suffering ovarian problems, she has had to travel in a lift in order to meet with her doctor. After some deliberation Freud realises that there is in fact a false connection between the patients menstruation and the worry at her daughter using a lift. It is this confusion of connections that Freud begins to realise is a form of defence to the traumatic thoughts. Freuds Treatment of Hysteria In the final part of Studies in Hysteria Freud sets out his theory of hysteria and what he has learnt about its treatment. Not only does this part of the book recap some of the themes already discussed but it also highlights some future direction in which Freuds work would travel. Two key signposts are seen: first in his stance on hypnotism, and secondly in his view on what constitutes hysteria. In an attempt to be of benefit to patients with hysteria, who he believed this treatment would help, he tried to treat as many as possible. The problem for him was how to tell the difference between a patient with hysteria and one without. Freud chose an interesting solution to what might have been a protracted problem of diagnosis. He simply treated patients who seemed   to have hysteria and let the results of that treatment speak for themselves. What this immediately did was to widen out the object of his enquiry to neuroses in general. Picking up on the lightly touched theme of sexual tr ansference between Breuer and Anna O mentioned earlier, Freud made his feelings about the roots of neurotic problems quite clear, and in the process set the agenda for psychoanalysis for the next century or more. He believed that one of the primal factors in neuroses lay in sexual matters. In particular Freud came to acknowledge that peoples neuroses rarely came in a pure form, as the early and almost impossibly neat case of Anna O had signposted, and that in fact people were more of a mixed bag. Looking back through the cases reported in Studies on Hysteria Freud explains that he came to see a sexual undercurrent in his notes that had not been at the forefront of his mind when he had treated the patients. Especially in the case of Anna O as already noted Freud felt Breuer had missed a trick. What these ideas seem to be adding up to is almost a rejection of hysteria, if not as a separate diagnosis, certainly as a category of disease practically amenable to treatment. Freud, however, is defensive about rejecting the idea of hysteria as a separate diagnosis, despite the fact that that is the direction in which his thoughts are heading. At this stage he believes it can be treated as a separate part of a patients range of symptoms and the effect of this treatment will be governed by its relative importance overall. Those patients, like Anna O, who have relatively pure cases of hysteria will respond well to the cathartic treatment, while those diluted cases will not. The second key signpost for the future of psychoanalysis was Freuds use of hypnosis. What he found was that many of the patients he saw were simply not hypnotisable Freud claims unwillingness on their part but other writers are of the opinion that he was simply not that good at it (Forrester, 1990). This was a problem for Freud because Breuers formulation of the treatment for hysteria required that events were recollected that were not normally available to a person. Hypnosis had originally proved a good method and indeed in Anna Os case the only method for gaining access to these past events. In response, Freud now turned away from hypnosis to develop his own techniques for eliciting the patients traumatic events. These were quite simple: he insisted that the patient remember what the traumatic event was, and if they still could not, he would ask the patient to lie down and close their eyes nowadays one of the archetypal images of patient and analyst. Freud saw the patients relu ctance of his patients to report their traumatic events as a one of the biggest hurdles in his coalescing form of therapy. He came up with the idea that there was some psychical force within the patient that stopped the memories from being retrieved. From the patients he had treated, he had found that the memories that were being held back were often of an embarrassing or shameful nature. If was for this reason that the patient was activating psychical defence mechanisms. At this stage he hoped to be able to show in the future that it was this defence or repulsion of the traumatic event to the depths of the memory that was causing so much psychical pain to the patient. Overcoming this psychical force, Freud found, was not as simple as insisting, and he developed some further techniques. Patients would easily drift off their point or simply dry up and it needed more powerful persuasion to return them to the traumatic event. One particular technique he found extremely useful and would almost invariably use it when treating patients. This involved placing his hand on the patients head and instructing them that when they feel the pressure they will also see an image of their traumatic event. Having assured the patient that whatever they see, they should not worry that this image is inappropriate or too shameful to discuss, then they are asked to attempt a description of the image. Freud believed that this system worked by distracting the patient, in a similar way as hypnosis, from their conscious searching for the psychical trauma and allowed their mind to float free. Even using the new technique of applying pressure, it did not provide direct access to the psychical trauma. What Freud found was that it tended to signal a jumping off point or a way-station, somewhere on the way to or from the trauma. Sometimes the image produced would provide a new starting point from which the patient could work, sometimes it fitted into the flow of the subject of discussion. Occasionally the new image would bring a long-forgotten idea to the patients mind which would surprise them and initially seem to be unrelated, but later turn out to have a connection. Freud was so pleased with his new pressure technique that, in complex cases, he would often use it continuously on the patient. This procedure would bring to light memories that had been hitherto completely forgotten, as well as new connections between these memories and even, sometimes, thoughts that the patient doesnt even believe to be their own. Freud is careful to point out that although his pressure technique was useful, there were a number of very strong forms of defence that stopped him gaining easy access to the patients psychical trauma. He often found that in the first instance, applying pressure by his hand to the patient would not work, but when he insisted to the patient that it would work the next time, it often would. Still, the patient would sometimes immediately reinterpret or, indeed, begin to edit what was seen, thus making the reporting much less useful. Freud makes it clear that sometimes the most useful observations or memories of the patient are those that they consider to be of least use or relevance. Also, the memories will tend to emerge in a haphazard fashion, only later, and with the skill of the analyst, being fitted together into a coherent picture. Freud refers to this as a kind of censoring of the traumatic events, as though it can only be glimpsed in a mirror or partially occluded around a corne r. Slowly but sure the analyst begins to build up a picture with the accretion of material. There is nothing, Freud believed that is not relevant every piece of information is a link in the chain, another clue to the event that has traumatised the psyche. Another major component of psychoanalysis makes its first appearance in the Studies on Hysteria. Freud describes a final defence or block against the work of treating hysteria in the very relationship between the patient and doctor. Indeed, Freud sees this defence is sure to arise, and perhaps the most difficult defence of all to overcome. The first of the three circumstances in which it may arise is a simple, probably small, breakdown in the relationship between the physician and patient. It might be that the patient is unsure about the physicians techniques or alternatively has felt slighted in the treatment in some way. This can be rectified with a sensitive discussion. The second of the three circumstances occurs when the patient becomes fearful that they will lose their independence because of a reliance on their treating physician. As almost all of Freuds patients who had hysteria were women, this could be conceived as a sexual reliance. The third circumstance is where the pati ent begins to take the problem that they are trying to resolve and transfer it onto the physician, thereby seeing their problem there instead of where it really exists. Freud provides the straightforward example of the sexual transference of a female patient of his who suddenly developed the vision of kissing him. He reports that the patient could not be analysed any further until this block had been addressed. The mechanism by which this transference happens, he posits, is that the patient creates a false connection between the compulsion which is the basis for their treatment and the therapist, rather than its original recipient. In treating these defences Freud makes it clear that the main aim should be to make the patient aware that this problem exists, and then once they are aware of it, the problem is largely dealt with. The challenge, then, is getting the patient to admit to these potentially embarrassing feelings. The Aetiology of Hysteria The development of Freuds theory of the aetiology of hysteria provides one of the most insightful, and sometimes controversial, areas of his work. The formation of the theory, like the work on its treatment, provided another important testing ground for some of the basic elements of what would later become psychoanalysis. Previous authors, including Breuer in the joint work with Freud in Studies on Hysteria, gave great weight to the heredity factors in the causes of hysteria. Freud meanwhile acknowledged these ideas, but in Heredity and the Aetiology of the Neuroses (Freud, 1896b) set out the three factors he believed were important and began to formulate a new theory. The causes of hysteria could be broken down into: (1) Preconditions this would include hereditary factors, (2) concurrent causes which are generalised causes and (3) specific causes, these being specific to the hysteria itself. It is in these specific causes he believed he had found an important contribution to aetiology of the condition. One of the common factors of the patients Freud was seeing, and the one he was coming to see as defining, was in their sexual problems. He reports that while many suffered from a range of different symptoms such as constipation, dyspepsia and fatigue, almost all of them had some kind of sexual problems. These ranged from the inability to achieve orgasm to a more general inability to have a satisfying sexually relationship. Freud saw this as a very significant problem as he maintains that the nervous systems needs to be regularly purged of sexual tension. This pattern across his patients, and the development of his theory of traumatic psychical events, led him to wonder what past events could have caused the sexual dysfunction the patients with hysteria were manifesting. Radically, and expecting no small amount of opposition to the idea, Freud advanced the theory that these neuroses were caused by sexual abuse before the age of sexual maturity. Of the thirteen cases that Freud had tre ated at the time of the paper, all of them had been subject to sexual abuse at an early age. However, Freud does make it clear that the information about their sexual lives is not obtained without some considerable pressure, and it only emerges in a fragmentary way that has later to be pieced together by the therapist. At this early stage of the theory, Freud believed that the sexual abuse left a psychical trace and formed the traumatic experience which was locked away in the depths of the mind. These ideas were much further developed and expanded on in Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence (Freud, 1896a). Earlier Freud had grouped together hysteria with hallucinatory states and obsessions (Freud, 1894) and had begun to formulate the idea that all of these conditions had a common aetiology. In particular, Freud felt these were all part of an area where the ideas of psychological defences and psychological repression were important. Freud had found that patients he had seen had suffered sexual abuse sometimes as early as two years old and up to the age of ten, which he drew as an artificial cut-off point. What other theorists saw as a heredity, Freud saw as the confluence of factors for example if a boy had been sexually abused when he was five then it was likely that his brother would have been abused by the same person. Rather than seeing heredity as a separate factor in hysteria, he saw the sexual abuse as a replacement for heredity, sometimes exclusively, as the root cause in itself. The theory shows an interesting divergence in the analysis of obsessional neuroses. Here, Freud believed that the obsessional neuroses were caused by a sexual activity   in childhood rather than the sexual passivity typical of abuse. These ideas linked in neatly to the greater preponderance of obsessional neuroses in males. A logical division is therefore made with the females, the apparently more passive sex suffering from hysteria, while the apparently more active sex suffering from obsessions. In searching for the aetiology of these two conditions, it is here that Freud prefigures his future thinking on stages of sexual development by introducing the idea that the development of neuroses and/or hysteria is/are dependent on when the sexual abuse occurs in the developmental stages of the child, with sexual maturation providing the cut-off point. In The Aetiology of Hysteria Freud again makes clear his divergence from his mentor, Charcot, in claiming that heredity is not the most important factor in the aetiology of hysteria (Freud 1896c). Freud (1896c) travels back through the life-histories of the patients he has treated looking for the original source of the psychical trauma, discounting all sexual experiences at puberty and later. It is only in pre-pubescent children, when the potential for harm is at its greatest that there lies a sufficient cause. Freuds theory revolves around the idea that at a